The First Opium War
1840-1842
Records in Chinese
LEADUP TO THE WAR
According to Chinese records, while most opium sales were unrecorded because of their illegality, the documented purchases of opium increased more than 20 times from around 1,000 chests per year in 1794 to around 20,500 chests in 1833.
The Chinese records also indicate that China paid six hundred million (600,000,000) silver dollars for smuggled opium between 1800-1839. That is 30 times the amount of money contained in the Qing dynasty’s treasury when Daoguang emperor succeeded the throne.
In 1839, Lin Zexu (林则徐) was commissioned by Daoguang emperor to control the opium smuggle. The most notable of Lin’s efforts was the Destruction of Opium at Humen (虎门销烟) in June 1839. Lin ordered the month long destruction of opium at the Humen beach and destroyed a total of 1,188,127 kg (2,619,372 pounds) of opium.
This demonstration informed the public of the harms of opium and evoked skepticism towards British intentions in smuggling opium. However, these positive effects were short lived, as the British used the destruction of opium as an excuse to launch war.
THE WAR
On September 4, 1839, the Battle of Kowloon (九龙之战) marked the start of the war. This war is documented as a Chinese victory, with two Chinese soldiers killed and four wounded, whereas at least 17 British soldiers were killed. Chinese records also cited a certain British soldier’s [See Note 1] letter to his relative on how the battle was 1) initiated by the British and 2) a British defeat. The British were unable to gain much from the first stage of the war, as they suffered another defeat in the Battle of Chuanbi and were unable to obtain Guanyong after six assaults. [See Note 2]
However, the British obtained reinforcements and revised their plans for the second stage of war, while the Qing court did not prepare for further war despite Lin Zexu’s warnings. The first British offense of Xiamen in 1840 was dispelled and the British only left ships in the Xiamen harbor for a naval blockade. However, in 1841, China lost Xiamen, Dinghai, Zhenhai, and Ningbo, and the British continued to obtain various cities along the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in 1842.
Chinese historians largely attribute the loss to three reasons: worse military equipment, worse tactics and battle-planning, and arrogance in its own military prowess as the “middle kingdom” and the dominating Asian country.
THE TREATY OF NANJING
The Treaty of Nanjing (南京条约) is seen as the first unequal treaty in modern Chinese history. It required China to 1) open up five ports for commerce (Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo, Shanghai); 2) give up Hong Kong to the British; 3) pay 21 million (21,000,000) taels of silver; 4) provide a fixed rate of tariffs for the British; and 5) grant extraterritoriality to all British citizens in China.
Records in English
LEADUP TO THE WAR
China imported around 4,000 chests of opium, containing about 140 pounds (63.5 kg) of opium each, by 1790. This increased tenfold to 40,000 chests right before the war. Estimations state that there were ten million (10,000,000) smokers in China, and 20% of them were addicts.
As more got addicted, Daoguang emperor appointed Lin Zexu (林则徐) as Imperial Commissioner to end the opium trade. Lin arrived in Canton in March 1839. While his efforts were unsuccessful and eventually led to the Opium War, he was still remembered as a wise and upright patriot.
THE WAR
Records on MIT’s Visualizing Cultures Website noted that illustrations and records are very Britain-sided because more records from Britain remain and the Qing dynasty did not want to publicize its failure.
The British asked for money for the opium Lin confiscated, and pushed north to cut Beijing off from the south’s supplies and pressure the Qing court into negotiations. Throughout the war, Chinese officials were said to minimize the number of casualties on the Chinese side, and report losses as victories (such as the Battle of Kowloon and the first Battle of Chuanbi). [See Note 3]
By January 20, 1841, after losing the Second Battle of Chuanbi, leading official Qishan agreed to the Convention of Chuanbi, in which China would give Hong Kong to Britain, pay six million (6,000,000) silver dollars, and reopen trade in Canton. Both the Qing and Britain governments were dissatisfied with the terms, and Qishan and his British counterpart Charles Elliot were dismissed.
THE TREATY OF NANJING
The war continued with China losing control over various important locations, and on August 29, 1842, the Qing court agreed to sign the Treaty of Nanjing (南京条约) to end the war.
Mainly, China had to 1) give Hong Kong to Britain; 2) pay twenty million (20,000,000) silver dollars indemnity; 3) grant extraterritoriality to the British; and 4) a fixed tariff rate that could not protect Chinese products from foreign competition. China also had to sign similar unequal treaties with the U.S. and France.
Analysis on Differences
One notable instance is of the Battle of Sanyuanli (三元里抗英斗争), which happened on May 30, 1841. In this skirmish with Chinese villagers, records in English indicate that only one sepoy was killed and 15 were injured, and that the Chinese exaggerated British casualties to illustrate this war as a grass-root victory.
Chinese records, on the other hand, state that the battle was launched by villagers whose wives were sexually harrassed by plundering British soldiers. One record stated that more than 100 soldiers were killed, with dozens injured, and the Chinese only suffered 20 deaths. Chinese records also accuse the British of minimizing their losses. Regardless of the accuracy of the numbers, the Battle of Sanyuanli remains as an important victory for the Chinese. In 1958, a Battle of Sanyuanli memorial museum was established in Guangzhou.
As the two records directly contradict each other, it could be difficult to decide which to believe. It probably ends up as a personal choice.